Vindication for Elizabeth Bathory

I first learned about Elizabeth Bathory 40 years ago when I was researching the manifestations of sleep paralysis in literature and folklore.  She and her servants were accused of secretly murdering hundreds of young woman, an accusation that later morphed into bathing in the blood of the virgins.

This outstanding book meticulously examines and interprets the historical record - no small feat, considering that the primary source documents are in Hungarian, Latin, and Slovak, and because translating seventeenth century idioms and grammar requires specialized knowledge.

I have previously blogged one page from this book describing the general ambience of Hungary in the 1600s.  Elizabeth Bathory was a leading member of the most powerful famiily in Hungary, rivaling the Hapsburgs in wealth and prestige.  But this era was also characterized by extensive discord arising from invading Turkish armies. social unrest triggered by the rise of Lutheranism challenging the established church, and even climate-related crop crises from what is now referred to as a "Little Ice Age."

The wealth and power of the Bathory family constituted an existential threat to the Hapsburgs.  In 1605 Elizabeth controlled 17 castles and reinforced manor houses, and properties extending over about five hundred miles - but she lacked the protection of any male relative - father, husband, brother, or adult son - and thus was an attractive target.

Shelley Puhak's research for this book (25 pages of bibliography plus an additional 30+ pages of endnotes) convincingly documents that the charges against this lady were fabrications, and the "revelations" by the servants about murder and cannibalism were elicited after torture by authorities, all for the purpose of others securing control of her landholdings.

My assessment of the book is similar to what I expressed in my review of Island at the Edge of the World [the history of Rapa Nui].   Both books are scholarly works that correct longstanding myths and misunderstandings, but both are "too much information" for the casual reader.  As much as I loved the subject matter discussed here, I wound up having to skim through detailed explications of the politics of the 1600s.  But I'm glad I found it and I'm happy to share my thoughts with the few readers here who might also find it of interest.

Hungary in 1604 must have been amazing

I hope I'm not violating too many copyright regulations by reproducing these three pages.  I'll be reviewing The Blood Countess: Murder, Betrayal, and the Making of a Monster by Shelley Puhak (Bloomsbury, 2026) this coming week.  My personal school-based education in history through high school and college was so focused on the United States and western Europe that information like this is stunningly new to me.  More to come next week...  (but I may retype some of the paragraphs above just to make them searchable)

Hammerhead shark embroidery - by Mary, Queen of Scots (~1570)

From the collections of the Victoria and Albert:

[A panel from] The Oxburgh Hangings. Hanging with applied panels of embroidery, formerly at Oxburgh Hall, Norfolk.

Inscriptions: A ZYDRACH ' 'ZYGAENA' hammer headed shark from C Gesner Icones Animalium Aquatilium Zurich 1560 p 150

Mary Queen of Scots' troubled reign in Scotland ended in 1568 when the Scottish Lords forced her to flee across the border into England. As Elizabeth's cousin Mary had long claimed the English throne, leading Elizabeth to see Mary as a threat and place her in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury. Mary was held captive in various English country houses for 19 years. She was finally executed in 1587.

Mary Queen of Scots (1542-1587) embroidered these panels with Elizabeth Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury (Bess of Hardwick) and ladies of the household, during her imprisonment. Mary may have intended the large central panel as a cushion for Philip Howard, Earl of Arundel (1557-1595), an English Catholic courtier imprisoned in London by Elizabeth I.

I was startled to learn that she was even aware of the existence of hammerhead sharks, much less that she would embroider one (reasonably accurately). 

Via A London Salmagundi. (Image cropped and brightened from original).  Reposted from 2012.

Addendum:  A tip of the blogging cap to reader Temptoetiam, who provided a link to a JSTOR article which in turn cited the Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes and provided this preview info:

I had no idea of the connection.  Thank you so much.

A history of disinfected mail

As soon as humans became aware that infectious diseases could be transmitted by fomites (inanimate objects), attention was directed to developing methods of disinfection. Postal and public health authorities had to deal with a wide variety of extremely dangerous infections (cholera, yellow fever, smallpox, leprosy, anthrax), and applied a surprising variety of techniques to letters and packages sent through the mails, beginning as early as the 15th century in Venice.

A very informative philatelic exhibit presents examples of how the U.S. has dealth with potentially dangerous items.  Shown at the top, for example, are two letters from locations where yellow fever was present; they have been punctured to allow fumigating agents to reach the inside of the envelope.  The bottom envelope in this image -

- had its corners clipped off so that formaldehyde gas could be introduced to kill smallpox.  Other letters and postcards were autoclaved or steam sterilized, which could be deleterious to the letters inside.

These precautions were not limited to the preantibiotic era.  In 2001 threats of anthrax attacks were made in the United States, and a variety of special precautions, including x-irradiation, had to be undertaken, beginning at this page of the exhibit and continuing for a dozen pages thereafter.  And these letters from Hawaii in 1900 show how holes were punched in the envelopes -

- so that sulfur fumes could be insufflated before they were sent from areas quarantined for bubonic plague.  Other examples are shown of disinfection of mail from the Hawaiian leper colony.

Philatelic exhibitions are conventionally mounted on a series of glass-fronted frames, with up to 16 letter-size pages in one frame, and in this case spread onto six frames.   This award-winning exhibit was created by William A. Sandrik of Arlington, Virginia.  The entire exhibit may be viewed at Exponet (frame 1, frame 2, frame 3, frame 4, frame 5, frame 6).

And those interested in philately (stamp and postal history collecting) should browse the Exponet site beginning at this index page.  Over 600 exhibits are accessible, on a huge variety of topics, in a wide variety of languages.

Reposted from 2011 because of its timely subject matter.   Today a New York Times article addresses the question of transmission of coronavirus by mail:

A representative for the U.S. Postal Service was unwilling to discuss current sanitization protocols. But the agency’s website reports that the only mail items receiving treatment are letters and parcels sent to ZIP codes beginning in 202, 203, 204 and 205, which serve federal government agencies in Washington, D.C. In a process that began shortly after the 2001 anthrax attacks, the Postal Service sends mail destined for those ZIP codes to New Jersey, where they are put on a conveyor belt and passed under a high-energy beam of ionizing radiation that kills bacteria and viruses. The letters and packages are then “aired out” for a while, before being forwarded to their destinations. The paper is left slightly faded and somewhat crispy, but sterile.

Should mail irradiation be extended beyond these exclusive ZIP codes, to help prevent the spread of the coronavirus? On CBS News’s Face the Nation on Sunday morning, Scott Gottlieb, the former commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration, warned that SARS-CoV-2 could potentially be transmitted by contaminated objects. “This is a sticky virus,” he said. The structure of the coronavirus’s protective envelope helps it bond tightly to certain surfaces: skin in particular, as well as fabric and wood, but also plastic and steel...

David Partenheimer, a spokesman for the Postal Service, noted that the surgeon general, Dr. Jerome M. Adams, along with the Centers for Disease Control and the World Health Organization, has “indicated that there is currently no evidence that COVID-19 is being spread through the mail.”..

Then again, contact transmission is notoriously difficult to study and document...

Reposted from 2020 to accompany a newer and related post. 

An interesting NOVA program on "desert kites"

This one is many months old, because I save them to a DVR and watch whenever.  I believe what I've embedded above is full-length rather than a teaser trailer.

I didn't watch it when it came out because I thought the "desert kites" were quite obviously the terrestrial equivalent of fish weirs in coastal environments.  The interesting reveal to me was that the ancient people constructing these were able to create "death pits" using walls of just the right height so that an antelope's vision wouldn't see the presence of the pit, which was lined with smooth stones to prevent escape.  Basically like creating a "head-smashed-in buffalo jump" where there were no natural cliffs.  And these were very early people from the Neolithic era.

The video also takes advantage of modern computer image generation and drone photography in rather effective ways.  NOVA programs have always been of the highest quality.

Ethnicity map of the United States

To celebrate the nation's 250th birthday, the New York Times has created an impressive interactive map depicting the self-reported ethnicity of U.S. citizens as they recorded such in 2019-2024 U.S. Census.  Responses rhat included a race but not a specific origin group are not included.

In the interactive map, you can zoom in to drill down to specific subregions, apparently defined by census data rather than county borders:

And there is a map from the time of colonization:

Postal history of the Telemark coast of Norway

The video is a full-length recording of an hour-long presentation at the Boston 2026 World Exposition of Philately.  The Telemark postal district is situated west of Oslo, and the coast extends from Skien on the north to Kragero on the southwest.  This presentation discusses postal history of this region up through the end of the 19th century.  The information will be of most interest to serious philatelists or to others interested in Scandinavian history.

One item will also be of interest to anyone who has a relative or friend whose last name is Odegaard.  When the Black Plague arrived in Norway in 1349, approximately 2/3 of the population died.  Some of those who survived moved to the abandoned farms.  "Odegaard" is Norwegian for "abandoned farm."  You learn something every day.

Rechalking the Cerne Abbas Giant

Readers here will certainly be familiar with the Cerne Giant.  What I had not appreciated from casual reading is the depth to which the chalk is embedded in the hillside.  Makes sense, of course, explaining how the figure came to be buried by natural growth and why it lay "hidden" for so long.  Details re the history here.

Photos in a Guardian article show volunteers "rechalking" the figure.

The custom has been to rechalk the 55-metre-tall giant roughly every seven to 10 years. It was last done in 2019 and before that in 2008... The rechalking technique is being adapted. In 2008 and 2017, it involved packing in dry chalk and tamping it down. “But that’s very difficult because the hill is so steep,” Dawson said.

So this time they are experimenting with mixing chalk (they need 17 tonnes of it) with water to create a paste. Dawson said: “It’s like a putty, which makes it easier to make it stick.”

I'm impressed by the quality of the preservation work being undertaken.

O.K - here's the photo, for those unfamiliar with it.  Now go to the links and read.  And please nobody tell Donald Trump about this; a ballroom/bunker is bad enough.

Neolithic trackway in Somerset

This interesting image was in a Guardian article describing and illustrating several of the most ancient pathways in England.  Shown above is the "Sweet Track", "built nearly 6,000 years ago (3806BC) by early farmers who needed access to an island, the collapsed boardwalk was preserved in peat."

It was interesting to me because of the technique used to secure the planks - suggestive of more sophisticated engineering than the most common corduroy roads.

The other ancient paths at the Guardian link are also interesting for different reasons; the article is worth a quick browse if you enjoy walking.

Top image cropped for size from the original, credit Craig Joiner Photography/Alamy.  Lower diagrams from Avalon Marshes.

Egyptian mummy buried with text from Homer's Iliad

Researchers discovered the mummy at a funerary complex located south of Cairo, in Al Bahnasa, the modern-day location of the ancient Greco-Roman city of Oxyrhynchus, during an excavation in late 2025. Upon examination, the team revealed a sheet of papyrus inside the mummy’s abdomen that contained text from the Iliad, the ancient Greek poet Homer’s epic account of the siege of Troy.

The passage is from Book II of the epic poem, in which Homer cataloged the Greek ships that came to do battle with Troy after Helen, the queen of Sparta and a daughter of Zeus, was taken there by Paris, the son of the king of Troy.

The researchers previously found scrolls in some of the other mummies interred inside three limestone chambers at Al Bahnasa, all of which date to the era of Roman rule over Egypt, which began in 30 B.C.E. and ended around C.E. 640. The newly examined mummy’s tomb dates to about 1,600 years ago, according to the researchers. None of the scrolls discovered inside other mummies at the site, however, contained any references to the Iliad, which would have already been considered a literary classic at that time.

I think it is reasonable to assume that this was not incorporated in the mummy as reading material for the afterlife.  More likely intended to grant safety for the "voyage" of the deceased.  

Image and text excerpt from Scientific American.

Anne Boleyn's hands and fingers

Anne Boleyn’s Hever “Rose” portrait is one of history’s most iconic faces, with her “B” pendant, her French hood, her dark eyes and a red rose in her right hand... Scientific analysis of the painting at Hever Castle, her childhood home in Kent, has uncovered evidence that an Elizabethan artist sought to create a “visual rebuttal” to claims that Henry VIII’s ill-fated wife was a witch with a sixth finger on her right hand...

In her 2025 book, The Many Faces of Anne Boleyn, Helene Harrison suggested that Anne’s hands were prominently displayed in the Hever Rose portrait to counter claims by Nicholas Sanders, a 16th-century writer and activist, who campaigned for the restoration of Roman Catholicism in England. He sought to undermine Elizabeth I’s legitimacy, writing that Anne had “on her right hand six fingers”. On being told of the new evidence, Harrison said it was amazing to find that the analysis supported her theory.

Kate McCaffrey, who is also an assistant curator at Hever, said: “It’s really thrilling. This is very strong evidence of a visual rebuttal of a very specific myth of witchcraft and six fingers, which is really quite extraordinary. The scientific analysis extends this to a very specific political moment in time.

“It’s Elizabeth’s way of not only reclaiming her own legitimacy and lineage, but also restoring the legitimacy of her mother. It’s impossible to say that Elizabeth herself commissioned this portrait, but it certainly seems too much of a coincidence for it not to be in response to rumours that were circulating at this time.”

Additional discussion at The Guardian.

The Roman emperor Commodus

Interesting.  You learn something every day.

America needs another New Deal

An excerpt from Heather Cox Richardson's April 13 "Letters from an American" -

Just as there is a blueprint for destroying democracy, there is also one for rebuilding it. “Let us now and here highly resolve to resume the country’s interrupted march along the path of real progress, of real justice, of real equality for all of our citizens, great and small,” New York governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt said to the delegates at the Democratic National Convention in 1932 as American democracy struggled to resist fascism.

“Out of every crisis, every tribulation, every disaster, mankind rises with some share of greater knowledge, of higher decency, of purer purpose,” FDR said. “Today we shall have come through a period of loose thinking, descending morals, an era of selfishness, among individual men and women and among Nations…. Let us be frank in acknowledgment of the truth that many amongst us have made obeisance to Mammon, that the profits of speculation, the easy road without toil, have lured us from the old barricades. To return to higher standards we must abandon the false prophets and seek new leaders of our own choosing.”

“I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people,” FDR concluded. “Let us all here assembled constitute ourselves prophets of a new order of competence and of courage. This is more than a political campaign; it is a call to arms. Give me your help, not to win votes alone, but to win in this crusade to restore America to its own people.”

(boldface added), More at the link.

Reconsidering Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

Rapa Nui (Easter Island) is a UNESCO World Heritage site because of its monumental statues (moai).  For several hundred years it has captured the public's imagination because of its mind-staggering physical remoteness and the seemingly incredible feat of humans locating and colonizing the island, located 2,000 miles from the nearest island in East Polynesia:

Island at the Edge of the World: The Forgotten History of Easter Island is a new book recently acquired by our library system, which I borrowed after reading that the author offered a new vision of the history of the island.  It is indeed an awesome book, which I have no doubt will become a standard reference citation, but it is probably TMI for the average reader because it examines every single detail about the history of the island, giving new emphasis to original ethnographic research conducted a century ago and debunking many modern interpretations.

"Conventional wisdom" (repeated in pop science articles and television shows) suggests as follows:

"That theory argues that Islanders let their population outgrow their home's capacity to support them.   In the quest for food they overfished the sea and destroyed soils, and in desperate religious tumoil they cut down all the trees to move statues.  Society collapsed in a fit of war and cannibalism.  When Europeans first saw Rapa Nui, it is said, they witnessed the result: a devastated land with few people, who could not have created the island's spectacular archaeological legacy." (xix)  

Thor Heyerdahl speculated and tried to prove that Rapa Nui had been colonized by white people who had crossed the Atlantic, built the South American civilizations and then continued west across the Pacific. 

The book convincingly debunks previous speculations.  The author notes for example that the population was not starving when the first Europeans arrived.  In fact, they offered food to the sailors.  They had an elaborate system for harvesting intermittent rainfall and had developed farming techniques suitable to the terrain.  The state of their society in modern times is in part a reflection of their more recent history:

"Lost in the haunting seduction of this eco-collapse theory was the true history of what the Islanders had endured at the hands of colonial imperialists.  Within a century and a half of having been found by Dutch sailors, Rapa Nui's people had been kidnapped, sold into slavery, killed off by new diseases, and removed to other islands.  They were all but extinguished.  Survivors were housed in a walled settlement, forbidden to return to their traditional homes and gardens and their sacred places, which were overrun by sheep and cattle making money for businesses half a world away.  Their history was written by outsiders who could not credit them with the abilities their monuments revealed... Those abandoned monuments were plundered and restored to make a museum for tourists... Their ancestors were an example to the world of the worst imaginable negligence, of behavior so lacking in respect for life, for the very soils that nurtured their existence, that they brought down their own future in a violent orgy of self-destruction..." (143)

An interesting book to browse.

Trail marker trees

The stately oak tree above was featured in our local paper.  Known as the "Half-Way Tree," this bur oak marks the midpoint between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River along paths used by Native Americans in the pre-settlement era.

Anyone interested in trail marker trees - especially those modified by Native Americans - should visit the comprehensive website of the Great Lakes Trail Marker Tree Society

Reposted from 2015 to add information that popped up on Facebook:

The mistake I've been carrying in my head for years was that the bent portion of a marker tree pointed which direction a trail went.  In retrospect it's apparent that such a direction should be unnecessary because if you're on the trail you know which direction it goes (unless its very old and overgrown).  On an active trail the bent portion of the tree would more logically point to local resources (water, shelter), as is obviously the case in this example.  

Kudos to the family that documented this example before it was lost forever.

Addendum:  Additional kudos to reader CHaggard, who found the current website for the Great Lakes Trail Marker Tree Society.  Lots of information and excellent photos of some remarkable trees, and info re a relevant book.

Addendum:  I'll append a photo of what I presume is a marker tree that I see every week when I drive to the local Target store for groceries.  The paved road beside which it is situated was a pioneer trail at the time of first settlement here, and presumably a native trail for hundreds of generations before that.

"Journey to the West"

I recently read an interesting review of The Monkey and the Monk (Univ Chicago Press, 2006) and found a copy in our library system.  The book is an abridgement (to 500 pages!) of the 16th century Ming dynasty novel Journey to the West.

It is regarded as one of the great Chinese novels, and has been described as arguably the most popular literary work in East Asia. It was widely known in English-speaking countries through the British scholar Arthur Waley's 1942 abridged translation Monkey. It is a progenitor to the Xianxia literary genre that combines martial arts with high fantasy in Ancient China.

The novel is a fictionalized and fantastic account of the pilgrimage of the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang, who went on a 19-year journey to India in the 7th century AD to seek out and collect Buddhist scriptures...

Journey to the West has strong roots in Chinese folk religion, Chinese mythology, Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoist and Buddhist folklore, and the pantheon of Taoist immortals and Buddhist bodhisattvas are still reflective of certain Chinese religious attitudes today, while being the inspiration of many modern manhwa, manhua, manga and anime series. Enduringly popular, the novel is simultaneously a comic adventure, a satire of Chinese bureaucracy, a source of spiritual reflection, and a rich allegory.

I have no doubt that this book would be an interesting read, but at my age the requisite time commitment becomes a formidable obstacle, and I've reluctantly turned the book back in.

But I do want to save (and share) the opening two pages:

And I'll retype some passages from the scans to make the keywords searchable:

"Before Chaos divided, Heaven tangled with Earth;

Formless and void - this, no human had seen.  

But when Pa Gu broke up the nebula,

Clearing began, the turbid parted from the pure.

Humaneness supreme enfolding every life

Enlightens all things that they become good..."

The text then makes mention of "cyclic time" - a fascinating concept offering echoes of perhaps the Mayan worldview?  Also that "in the order of Heaven and Earth, a single period consisted of 129,600 years."

I am fascinated by "origin stories" that peoples have created to explain the existence of the cosmos, earth, and humans.  In this classic oriental tale...

"At the end of the epoch of Xu, Heaven and Earth were obscure and all things were indistinct.  With the passing of 5,400 years, the beginning of Hai was the epoch of darkness.  This moment was named Chaos, because there were neither human beings nor the two spheres.."

Then the creation process continues.  The firmament acquires a foundation, then "the light rose up to form the sun, the moon, the stars, and the Heavenly bodies."  The earth becomes more firm, and "during the Yin epoch humans, beasts, and fowls came into being..."  Then the world is divided into four great continents...

To me this is fascinating stuff.  I am immediately reminded of the Babylonian concepts of the great depths of time and of course of the Mesoamerican Long Count.

Timelapse of the development of Chicago

I have lots of concerns re AI, but I have to grudgingly admit that it can generate some absolutely awesome images and videos.  More re the concerns later, but first this embed of Chicago from 1870 to the present.  History Revived has lots of these.  I'll definitely do the Mexico City one later.  

The "Agartha" meme ("Himmler's favorite myth")

As reported in The Atlantic: 

Heinrich Himmler and other Third Reich occultists in the 1930s latched onto the strange idea that the Aryan race was not the product of evolution but descended from semidivine beings who left the heavens and established a secret civilization on Earth, possibly beneath Central Asia. Himmler, the head of the SS, was so enthralled by the possibility of what he considered celestial proof of the superiority of the white race that he provided funding for an SS expedition to Tibet in 1938 in the hope of locating his utopia, according to Black Sun, a 2001 history of Nazi occultism by the British historian Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke.

Almost a century later, this idea of a lost Aryan civilization, called Agartha, has caught on again, this time with teenagers posting memes online. If you’re older than 25, you likely missed it. But over the past year, memes about Agartha—a mystical, underground city in the center of the Earth full of flaxen-haired, blue-eyed people—kept going viral and have become a staple of the youth internet...

Agartha memes usually feature supercuts—a video of short clips—comprising UFOs in the Antarctic, pyramid-laden civilizations, digitally altered images of Charlie Kirk with blond hair and chiseled features, stereotypical Nordic-looking people, and sugar-free Monster Energy drinks in white cans... But all of the Agartha memes share in common the concept of the subterranean Aryan paradise that Himmler yearned for...

Agartha was first developed as a mythical fantasy by French writers in the late 1800s but had no far-right associations at the time. After Himmler co-opted Agartha, neo-Nazis carried it and other Third Reich racist myths into the postwar era by creating a new philosophy and value system called “esoteric Hitlerism,” a fusion of racialist ideology and wacky mysticism. In the early 2020s, white supremacists turned those myths into internet propaganda...

Sellner positioned the memes as something that could be taken in jest. “Irony is the glue that holds this whole meme-universe together. Anyone who takes things deadly seriously or gets triggered has lost,” he wrote. This is the tone that a lot of people online have taken regarding the Agartha memes. No matter the underlying content, you’re not supposed to take the joke seriously, and if you do, the joke’s on you.

It’s a well-worn tactic, but also a common excuse used to launder noxious content. It’s not ironic or satirical for ethno-nationalists to joke about a mythical ethno-state when that fantasy is reflective of their extreme beliefs.

Editorial note:  the word is AgaRtha, with an "R", not Agatha (and there is a Wikipedia entry with lots of info).

"The Ark Before Noah"

Cultures around the world are awash with "great flood" myths.  Wikipedia has a list of flood myths that includes too many for me to count today.  It takes no leap of imagination to assume that ancient peoples traversing mountains and seeing fossilized obvious seashells on mountains used basic logic to accept that in ancient times a huge flood must have covered the world.

I have previous reviewed a very scholarly book discussing in details the great floods after the ice age and the submersion of Doggerland in the North Sea and Sundaland in southeast Asia.  Also related is my old post on The Black Sea Deluge as a source of ancient flood myths.

This post is about another book, published in 2014 (Doubleday) and recommended to me by a reader many years ago.  The author has the awesome title of "Assistant Keeper of Ancient Mesopotamian script, languages, and cultures" at the British Museum.  He is the person in charge of the gazillion cuneiform tablets stored at the museum, and he can read those nicks in the clay the way that I can read cursive.  This book focuses on an "ark tablet" in the museum holdings that presents in detail a myth of a world flood and the survival of mankind thanks to a man who builds an ark.   Here is the tablet (more pix at the link):

And here are some of my excerpts and thoughts after browsing the book...

Modern scholars generally agree that the ark described in Babylonian times was constructed of reeds (which are huge and plentiful in Mesopotamian wetlands).  Jewish scholars recognize that the word translated into the Hebrew Bible as "gopher wood" if pronounced slightly differently would also mean "reeds."

While I was pondering this problem, I was simultaneously reading about ancient Babylonian versions of the flood story. Of course, there are different approaches regarding how to reconcile these with the Torah's account, which are not our concern here. But I suddenly realized that they describe the ark as being made of reeds - which, in Hebrew, is kannim, the very word that our verse uses, albeit vocalized differently. And this was apparently the standard technique used for creating boats in ancient Mesopotamia - they were made of reeds, sometimes hybridized with a wooden frame for greater strength. (Note that this technique would have been unknown to later generations in other parts of the world, where boats were made exclusively from wood.)

It is also clear from three different cuneiform flood tablets that the ark was round like a circle (p 129).  And see this 2012 post.

There are two Hebrew sources for the description of the flood ("J" and "P").  The "J" says forty days of rain and everything dies.  The "P" source says flood rose for 150 days to cover  mountains, then takes 150 days to go down.  (217)

The kingdom of Judea was conquered in battle by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon in 597 BC, and the people of Jerusalem were taken into exile in Babylon -"all the officers and fighting men, and all the skilled workers and artisans - a total of ten thousand.  Only the poorest people of the land were left."  Those Judeans were then incorporated into Babylonian society, where they would have learned of the flood story. (227).  They would have seen the immense Tower (ziggurat) of Babel - seventy meters in height, way more than anything in Jerusalem.  It is incorporated into the 11th chapter of Genesis.

It is during this time of exile that two important shifts occur (pp 240s).  The Judeans incorporate the ark story into their own heritage, because all the intelligent young men of the society are being educated in Babel.  Conversely the Babylonian society, famously polytheistic, begins to view the gods in a more monotheistic arrangement (in accordance with the strictly monotheistic Jews).  The second commandment of the Judean Hebrew bible states "Thou shalt have no other gods before me" indicates a recognition of the existence of other gods.  But the Babylonians conversely start blending their various "gods" into Marduk - previously the "king of the gods" but now viewed as a single god with multiple manifestations:

The Judeans life in exile in Babylon is arguably the reason for their creation of their bible, nicely delineated on page 247:

"In the years before Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 BC the Judeans certainly did more than sit about and weep.  They adjusted and settled.  In time they became Mesopotamian citizens.  By the time Cyrus arrived by no means all of Nebuchadnezzar's displaced persons wanted to go "home" to Jerusalem.  However, the Judeans' ancient and somewhat ramshackle religious identity had meanwhile been crystallising into permanence due to their encyclopaedia of history, custom, instruction and wisdom.  They became literally the people of the book.  From this angle it can be argued that the Babylonian Exile, far from being the disaster it is usually judged, was ultimately the process that forged what became modern Judaism."

And that eventually led to the formation of Christianity six centuries later.  A fascinating idea.

There is more in the book than the ark story, including some discussion of the Babylonian Map of the World (the earliest known map of the world):

Inside the inner circle are the great rivers and the major cities.  They are surrounded by a great sea, beyond which are huge mountains.  The resemblance to the famous T and O map of the world is compellling.

I'm going to stop here.  If you are interested, the book should be in most public library systems.  It's TMI regarding cuneiform lettering and texts, but fascinating in its overall scope.  I highly recommend Chapter 11 (excerpted at length above) and Chapter 14 ("Conclusions: Stories and Shapes") for the TL;DR readers.

The Black Sea deluge

Another addition to my list of recommended books, this one explaining in detail the hypothesis that an immense and abrupt irruption of water into the Black Sea from the Aegean/Mediterranean seas was responsible for major cultural disruptions and may have been the basis for the "great flood" hypothesis seen in so many cultures.

In prehistoric times what is now the Black Sea was an immense freshwater lake, fed by glacial meltwaters.  When the outflow drainage at the Bosphorus closed and when the climate changed (disappearance of glaciers, aridity of the overall watershed), the lake evaporated to a smaller size.

The schematic at right shows the approximate relative sizes and shapes of the ancient freshwater lake and the current Black Sea.  That freshwater lake was a magnet for early human civilization because of the presence of water, game, and arable land.

When the Bosphorus "opened up," the inflow of seawater was on a scale not seen anywhere in the modern world.  The Mediterranean was open to the Atlantic, and the sea level was about 500 feet higher than the lake.  When water found a crack in the Bosphorus the flow would have started as a trickle, then as the passage eroded the flow would increase exponentially.  

"Ten cubic miles of water poured through each day, two hundred times what flows over Niagara Falls, enough to cover Manhattan Island each day to a depth of over half a mile."  

The lake then began to rise 6" per day, and depending on the gradient, the shore would expand by as much as a mile a day - every day, without pause.  The people living on the shores of the lake would be forced to flee.

"It is hard to imagine the terror of those farmers, forced from their fields by an event they could not understand, a force of such incredible violence that it was as if the collected fury of all the gods was being hurled at them.  They fled with family, the old and the young, carrying what they could, along with fragments of the other languages, new  ideas, and new technologies gathered from around the lake."

The diaspora is detailed in several chapters of the book.

"All these people appeared in Europe shortly after the flood.  All have been described [by archaeologists] as outsiders: people who migrated from some distance... all seem to have been more culturally advanced than those [original European residents] whom they displaced.  Perhaps not so coincidentally, at that time in the middle of the sixth millennium B.C., Europe began a rapid ascent into what has been called a "Golden Age"...

The diaspora also happened in the other direction, creating enormous population changes in Anatolia and the Middle East.

"In the [Mesopotamian] epic of Gilgamesh the seven sages are credited with building the walls of Uruk and bringing the arts of civilization to the Sumerians - irrigation, farming, and the use of copper, gold, and silver.  The question of where the Sumerians came from is still unanswered."

"The oldest known written versions of the flood were committed to clay tablets over two millennia after [this flood] event in Sumerian, the language of the first known writing, a language with no known roots and no known descendants..."

The final point to make is that the story of the flood would have been passed by oral history down through dozens of generations.  Archaeologists have noted that the peoples who fled to Europe tended to settle some distance away from freshwater lakes and streams.  But those who fled to the fertile crescent would have been reminded of the great flood because their new territory was also subjected to annual flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates, which may explain why the legend was maintained there until the invention of cuneiform writing.

If you don't have time for the book, you can browse the high points at the Wikipedia page for the Black Sea deluge hypothesis.

Other interesting bits from the book:

"[King Darius I the Great] governed skillfully and managed a vast empire long before that of Alexander the Great, a regime that encompassed all the prior realms of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Ionians, Persians, and Medes, extending to the east as far as the Indus Valley, to the west into Europe, and to the south into Africa, flourishing in economy and culture."

"Apparently what had so deeply moved Smith was the realization that the [cuneiform] fragments he had assembled contained an independent version of the biblical deluge.  The heathen words told almost exactly the same story as the Hebrew narrative, right down to the selection of a survivor of the deluge through the intervention of a god, the forewarning that gave time to build a wooden ark, the refuge in it of every kind of animal, bird, and reptile, the grounding of the boat on the side of a mountain, the details of dispatching a swallow, raven, and dove to find land, the offering of a sacrifice, and the pledge that the gods would never again return the world to its primeval watery chaos."  "... after the feast one of the goddesses flung her jeweled necklace into the sky to be the sign of a covenant never again to drown the world."  "There was no doubt that the deluge described so vividly in the Gilgamesh legend had been inscribed on stone tablets long before the writing of the first books of the Old Testament."

The fact that the Mediterranean basin had once been a desert is confirmed by the discovery that the Nile River has an immensely deep central gorge (now filled with sediment) as a result of erosion when the Nile used to empty into a much lower basin.  The separation of the Mediterranean from the Atlantic occurred during the Messinian time interval between 7.2 and 5.4 million years ago.  "The transition from sea to land and back to sea had taken less than half a million years."  "Although no humans lived five million years ago, had any been present, they would have witnessed the Mediterranean desert disappearing permanently beneath a mile of salt water in a matter of a single human lifetime."

"... the Sumerians and Akkadians, and even the Greeks, did not believe in a reward after death.  Death might be postponed through a petition to a god, but  no one could escape it.  The body returned to clay, and a duplicate "phantom" entered a new abode through an aperture in the grave, leading to an immense, dark, silent, and sad netherworld where one had a torpid and gloomy existence forever."

Reposted from 2022 to accompany other posts.