James Garfield - president for only 200 days

I have a new favorite president. Before reading this book, literally the only things I knew about James Garfield were that he was featured on the 20c prexie stamp (because he was the 20th president) and that he was assassinated while in office. Now I can add the following...

He grew up in Ohio in abject poverty – a one-room log cabin with a plank floor and windowpanes made of oiled paper. When he was two years old, his father died at age 33, leaving his mother with four children to feed. She farmed the land with the aid of his 11-year-old brother and saved money so that by age four James was able to get a pair of shoes. At age sixteen he began working on the Erie and Ohio Canal, but returned home after contracting malaria. By then his mother had saved $17, which was used to send him to Western Reserve Eclectic Institute, a one-building prep school. During his first year he worked as a janitor in exchange for receiving an education.

So vigorously did Garfield apply himself during his first year at the Eclectic that, by his second year, the school had promoted him from janitor to assistant professor. Along with the subjects he was taking as a student, he was given a full roster of classes to teach, including literature, mathematics, and ancient languages. He taught six classes, which were so popular that he was asked to add two more – one on penmanship and the other on Virgil. (p. 23) 

From there he moved to Williams College in Massachusetts and graduated in two years. He entered state politics in Ohio, then served in the Civil War in the Union Army, after which he was elected to Congress. He did NOT want to be president. He attended a nominating convention which was hopelessly deadlocked. On the 34th ballot, some electors voted for him. He rose to protest and was told to sit down.  On the 36th ballot, he became the Republican nominee – against his will. He was described as shocked, sickened, and pale as death during the proceedings. (pp 40-46).

He never participated in the campaign which was conducted on his behalf, preferring to work and receive visitors on his 160-acre farm.

He built a barn, moved a large shed, planted an orchard, and even shopped for curtains for the house…. he added an entire story, a front porch, and a library. Even with the new library, Garfield’s books filled every room. “You can go nowhere in the general’s home without coming face to face with books,” one reporter marveled. “They confront you in the hall when you enter, in the parlor and the sitting room, in the dining-room and even in the bath-room…” (p. 58) 

His campaign platform as a Republican emphasized civil rights and the welfare of the freed slaves, in which endeavor he was supported by Frederick Douglass. Voter turnout for the election was 78%, and he was elected by a narrow margin.

In the days that followed… Garfield could not shake the feeling that the presidency would bring hi only loneliness and sorrow. As he watched everything he treasured – his time with his children, his books, and his farm – abruptly disappear, he understood that the life he had known was gone. The presidency seemed to him not a great accomplishment but a “bleak mountain” that he was obliged to ascend. (p. 64) 

The assassin, Charles Guiteau, was a religious fanatic who was delusional to the point of frank psychosis. He borrowed $10 to buy a gun, used it to shoot the president not for any political or philosophical reason, but because he believed God wanted him to do it.

His first and primary defense was “Insanity, in that it was God’s act and not mine. The Divine pressure on me to remove the president was so enormous that it destroyed my free agency and therefore I am not legally responsible for my act.” (p. 237) 

The “insanity defense” was well established at the time. Interestingly, everyone at the time agreed that Guiteau was insane and that insane people were not liable for their actions. Everyone on the jury knew this also, but they were so angry that they basically said “he’s guilty – hang him anyway.”

Other interesting tidbits from the book: After Garfield was shot, the second physician who responded to the event was Charles Purvis, surgeon in chief of the Freedmen’s Hospital, 39 years old, one of the first black men in the U.S. to receive medical training at a university, and obviously the first ever to treat a president. (p. 140)

The White House of that era was like a slum residence, perpetually damp with rotting wood and vermin-infested walls and the odor of raw untreated sewage, situated next to a malarial tidal marsh. (p. 176)

Garfield was a Republican who embodied the party’s enthusiasm for helping immigrants, freed slaves, and impoverished people. He believed the key to improving the country lay in educating those people. (182)

It has been said that Guiteau did not kill the President – he shot him, but the doctors killed him by repeatedly probing the wound with ungloved, unwashed fingers. Guiteau used this argument in his own futile defense (“General Garfield died from malpractice.”). The bullet had lodged on the left side of his body behind the pancreas, but the attempts to find it on the right side resulted in profound septic sequelae:

One cavity in particular, which began at the site of the wound, would eventually burrow a tunnel that stretched past Garfield’s right kidney, along the outer lining of his stomach, and down nearly to his groin. An enormous cavity, six inches by four inches, would form under his liver, filling with a greenish-yellow mixture of pus and bile. (p. 196) 

He apparently developed septic emboli:

Just two weeks after the surgery, another abscess formed, this one on Garfield’s right parotid gland… the abscess had become so filled with pus that it caused his eye and cheek to swell and paralyzed his face. Finally, it ruptured, flooding Garfield’s ear canal and mouth with so much pus… that it nearly drowned him. (p. 216) 

The woefully incompetent Dr. Bliss treating him [“Ignorance is Bliss”] tried to cope with the president's rapid cachexia by feeding him intrarectally. The eventual cause of death (determined by autopsy) was hypovolemic shock following a rupture of the splenic artery (probably from a septic aneurysm).

Garfield does not get credit for any particular legislative achievements, because his time in office was too brief. Rather, his legacy is reflected in how his illness and death united the people of the country during the fractious time in the aftermath of the Civil War. And since Guiteau’s act had arisen in connection with the corrupt “spoils system” for giving out lucrative government job contracts, the popular revolt after the death led to the establishment of the civil service system. After his death, Garfield’s widow assembled his books and papers in a wing of their farmhouse, establishing the nation’s first-ever presidential library. 

The book is Destiny of the Republic. A Tale of Madness, Medicine and the Murder of a President, by Candice Millard, published by Doubleday in 2011. I'm pleased to add it to my list of recommended books.

Addendum 2016:
I am delighted to report that the superb television series American Experience has just released a program entitled "Murder of a President," about President Garfield; it is based on the book I reviewed above in 2012.  The two-hour program is playing on PBS stations around the country, and it can be viewed online here.

Reposted from 2016 because of the upcoming Netflix series Death by Lightning, which is scheduled to drop later this year.

Reposted from June because the Netflix series drops in two days.

The Lincoln Project creates some incisive videos

"Vertigo: The Rise and Fall of Weimar Germany"

This is an interesting longread about the Weimar Republic (Germany from the end of WWI until the mid-1930s).  It is a richly detailed book, and thus TMI for my personal needs, so I alternately browsed and read in depth various sections.

After WWI Germany entered a state of turbulent politics and economics.  There was civic turmoil because of internal dissension re the defeat in the war, combined with frankly chaotic economics leading to the famous hyperinflation.  Yet during this period there were major developments in lifestyle, employment (invention of typists and secretaries), fashion, sexual mores, architecture, automobiles, and design (Bauhaus). This book tries to cover as much of that as possible.  Herewith some excerpts and thoughts:

The Charleston dance was a life-changer for social interactions.  "The fact that one could dance the Charleston alone had consequences for the self-empowerment of the individual; to be able to join in solo on the dancefloor was nothing less than revolutionary." (xvii) (discussed in depth in Chapter 7)

Filmmaker Billy Wilder started his adult life as a gigolo in the dance halls of Berlin. (176)  After the war ended, Germans were crazed with the need to dance:

"Here and there two young girls dance together, sometimes even two young men; it's all the same to them.  They do it to the exotic sounds of the gramophone, which is fitted with robust needles to make it as loud as possible, and it rings out its shimmies, foxtrots and one-steps, its double foxtrots, African shimmies, java dances and polka creolas..." (180)

"The shimmy brought an unimagined freedom to the parquet.  Now people danced almost on the spot to whipped-up rhythms without touching one another... Where in the old days it would have been unthinkable to step on a dance floor without having first taken dancing classes, the new dances could only be learned by imitation..." (180) [followed by several pages of discussion of the shimmy]

"The rapturous experience of community in the ballroom grew even more intense in 1925 when the Charleston conquered the dance floors...  The Charleston turned dancers into acrobatic marionettes... The gramophone allowed people to dance at home and in the countryside... The Charleston was an uplifting dance.  It fired up the ego and inspired people to express their own emotions through dance.... The Charleston was particularly enjoyable for women.  They didn't have to be led, and were usually the more active, exuberant participants..." (186)

It was during this time period that "the weekend" was invented.  Two days off from work was revolutionary.

The cinema presented Charlie Chaplin and Marlene Dietrich, and was the top paid-for leisure activity.  "In the early 1920s most people didn't go to see a particular film, they just went to the cinema.  For that reason, many cinema owners didn't think it necessary to set a particular time for the screening to start.  Films were just shown one after the other, in any order.  People came and went... and watched for as long as they felt like it.  If the projectionist wanted to go home early he just played the film speeded up; silent films can take that.  More importantly there was no need for the audience to listen, so they made any amount of noise, chatted, applauded or commented bawdily on the action." (210)

Several chapters in the book discuss the great depression of the 1930s, when the country owed "reparations" to the West.  There were runs on the banks when hyperinflation went out of control.  Unemployment reached 30 to 40 percent of the population.  Then came the rise of the Nazis and of antisemitism.  Also major rifts developed between urban and rural populations.  There were calls for "an uprising by the countryside against the city... 

"...what one saw in the city was nothing but libertinism, women's emancipation, coarse language, and disrespectful irony...  Until the beginning of the depression these ingredients had constituted the charm of the liberal-left-wing Berlin cultural and media scene... but since optimism had fled from public life, the modernity of Berlin's cultural life seemed to have become more exclusive.  For those threatened by decline, the modern age felt less like freedom for all and more like pleasure for a few.  That intensified into the delusional claim that the modern arts were the destructive work of a corrupt elite that wanted to drive the soul out of the people  Hitler's campaign against 'degenerate art' would later be of prime importance for his success, because it included an assurance that the future volksstaat would be geared towards the taste of the people..." (316)

"... listening and looking more closely one could discern the gulfs of silence dividing society.  People liked to be among their own kind and held the rest in contempt,  Given the muddled state of things, even fewer people than usual were in a position to take anything meaningful from a discussion with people of a different opinion.  'Unity' and 'unanimity' were yearning words on everyone's lips, although there were only two ways of achieving either: through determined silence or brutal violence."  (330)

Most Germans had never learned to argue constructively.  They had been raised under the control of a Kaiser, and had done whatever they were told to do.  "When they jumped into freedom, few understood what it meant to take responsibility for oneself and consult with others in the abstract framework of democratic representation." (330)

"Opponents of the Berlin cultural scene had long asserted that it was indeed an island, but every milieu, every newspaper formed an island in itself, with its own opinion makers, whistleblowers and regular readers - an island where the opinions of outsiders were unwelcome.  Every political trend, every little party, the tiniest intellectual village had its own newspaper..  A form of the infamous 'filter bubble' or 'echo chamber' through which people can become intellectually isolated on digital networks in the present day also existed in Weimar Germany.  Reader and newspaper existed in a mutual relationship of confirmation bias; the newspaper wrote what the reader wanted to hear, and the reader stayed loyal as long as the paper didn't trouble him with unwelcome news." (332)

Three weeks after the 1933 election the members of the new Reichstag held their second meeting.  "On the agenda was Hitler's 'Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and Reich', also known as the Enabling Act.  This was intended to give the government the right to make laws independent of parliament and without regard for the constitution and constitutional rights..."  After a period of violence in the streets "the Enabling Act was passed with the necessary two-thirds majority, and democracy was abolished in an apparently democratic way."  (372)

The parallels between Weimar Germany and modern America are uncanny and deeply disturbing.  John Farrier, if you are on the acquisitions committee at your library, please advise them to consider this one.

The surprising etymology of "giddy"

"Giddy" is a familiar word, typically used to convey that the speaker is "joyfully elated; overcome with excitement or happiness," but it began life meaning possessed by a demon.  I'll let Wiktionary explain:

The adjective is derived from Middle English gidi, gedy, gydy (“demonically controlled or possessed; crazy, insane; foolish, idiotic, ridiculous, unwise; unsure; (rare) dizzy, shaky; (rare) of an animal: crazed, out of control; a fool”) [and other forms], from Old English gidiġ, gydiġ (“possessed by a demon or spirit, insane, mad”), from Proto-West Germanic *gudīg (“ghostly, spirited”, literally “possessed by a god or spirit”), from *god (“god”) + *-ig, *-g (suffix forming adjectives with the senses of being, doing, or having). The English word is analysable as god +‎ -y (suffix meaning ‘having the quality of’, forming adjectives).

You learn something every day.

Tilted-room sketches by Shaun Micallef

YouTube link.

A sketch from The Micallef P(r)ogram(me).  And if you like that one, here's more:

YouTube link.

Second repost (originally posted 2013) because after checking all the news online, I needed a laugh.  And this never gets old.

Watching the World Series... from a hotel bed

"The only hotel in North America to be found in a major league sports and entertainment venue, the Toronto Marriott City Centre has 348 pet-friendly guest rooms, including 68 that look right out into the stadium."

A recent Bloomberg article offered some observations regarding the monetary aspects of baseball'w World Series:

Sam McDadi, a real estate agent and holder of three tickets behind home plate  [will] attend Game 6 himself and bring two friends, despite receiving offers of as much as C$30,000 ($21,415) per seat. But he admitted to being tempted by that amount, especially when he bought his tickets for about C$3,000 each...

For those with smaller budgets, the cheapest available ticket for Friday’s game on the resale site StubHub was around $1,280 as of late Thursday night Toronto time...

Other businesses are also cashing in. The Blue Jays’ home stadium has an unusual feature: a Marriott hotel with 55 field-view rooms. Those went on sale Tuesday morning starting at C$8,500 per night for Games 6 and 7 and sold out immediately, according to a hotel executive. As of Thursday evening, Marriott’s booking site showed rooms available — because of canceled reservations — for around C$12,000 for Friday night...

...financial firms that have corporate boxes at the stadium will use access as a reward system. For anyone lucky enough to get an invitation, “it means you’re a good client, a good customer.”

There are all sorts of lines of commentary I could offer, depending on whether I'm wearing my sports-fan cap or my "elderly grumpy woke person" hat.  With regard to both of those hats, I'll note that every player on the field is not only a millionaire, but earns several million dollars every year, and they are battling to decide who will become the bigger multimillionaires.  

But the big transfer of wealth goes from the general public to the corporate overlords who control the business.  It's generally agreed that everyone is entitled to spend their money any way they please, and if someone chooses the World Series rather than sending funds to World Central Kitchen, they can do so.  But it feels oddly disturbing that this is what our world is evolving into.

Embedded mage and excerpted text from Adventures All Around, where there are more details about these rooms.

Halloween greetings to my neighbors

Ghosts rising from tombs...

A pumpkin patch...

... and a hybrid "cat-witch"

Brought to you by the same neighborhood chalk artists who created a butterfly garden on the driveway last month.

Humans were never hypercarnivores. Neanderthal consumption of maggots clouds the data.

Excerpts from an interesting paper in Science Advances.

Reconstructions of Eurasian Neanderthal diets based on stable nitrogen isotope ratios (δ15N) typically place hominins at the top of the food web, together with, or above, hypercarnivores, such as lions and wolves. We suggest that these high δ15N values may, in part, reflect the regular consumption of 15N-enriched fly larvae (maggots) occurring in stored animal foods. The ethnohistoric record contains countless examples of Indigenous peoples routinely consuming putrefied animal foods with maggots... We suggest that frequent consumption of animal foods laced with maggots should be considered as a contributor to the high δ15N values observed in Late Pleistocene hominins...

Indigenous peoples almost universally viewed thoroughly putrefied, maggot-infested animal foods as highly desirable fare, not starvation rations. Many such peoples routinely, often intentionally, allowed animal foods to decompose to the point where they were crawling with maggots, in some cases even beginning to liquify, and inevitably emitting a stench so overpowering that early European explorers, fur trappers, and missionaries were sickened by it. Yet such foods were viewed as “good to eat,” even a delicacy, and when asked how they could tolerate the nauseating stench, they simply responded, “we don’t eat the smell”. While our Western sensibilities might abhor the thought of maggot-infested foods, one even finds vestiges of larvae consumption in Europe with the delicacy of casu marzu, a traditional Sardinian cheese replete with the larvae of cheese flies (Piophila casei)...

Our principal goal in this study was to determine whether 15N enrichment occurred in maggots raised on putrid tissue and whether the degree of enrichment was of sufficient magnitude to account for, or at least contribute notably to, the unusually elevated δ15N values observed in Eurasian Late Pleistocene hominins...

Many nitrogen isotope studies place Late Pleistocene hominins alongside hypercarnivores, giving the misleading impression that both had broadly similar diets. They did not. Hominins are primates with largely vegetarian-derived digestive and metabolic systems, not specialized flesh eaters. While it is possible for humans to subsist on a very “carnivorous” diet, many traditional northern hunter-gatherers such as the Inuit subsisted mostly on animal foods, hominins simply cannot tolerate the high levels of protein consumption that large predators can. A modern human weighing ~80 kg, the estimated body weight for a robust cold-adapted Neanderthal male, cannot consume more than ~300 g of protein per day (<4 g/kg of body weight) without serious health consequences. At sustained intakes above that level for as little as 1 to 2 weeks, the individual becomes vulnerable to a debilitating and potentially lethal condition known to early explorers as “rabbit starvation”...

In modern medical terms, the consumption of such high levels of protein exceeds the capacity of the liver to up-regulate enzymes involved in the synthesis of urea, with the result that the liver can no longer effectively deaminize the amino acids, leading, in turn, to a buildup of ammonia and excess amino acids (hyperaminoacidemia) in the blood. In notable contrast, a modern African lion can readily subsist on protein intakes that would probably prove lethal to a human in a matter of a few weeks. Thus, northern hunter-gatherers were carnivorous only in the sense that they relied heavily on animal foods, but most of what they ate was fat, not muscle...

To stay below the critical protein threshold, hunters deliberately targeted the fattest prey available at a given time of year and harvested mostly the “choice parts” of their kills, i.e., the brain, tongue, briskets, ribs, adipose tissue, fatty organs and entrails, marrow, often the carbohydrate-rich chyme and partly digested stomach contents, and, time and fuel permitting, also the grease in the cancellous tissue of the bones...

...meat and fish surpluses were procured in the summer and fall; processed by drying, salting, or freezing; and cached for later use…. The preparation of food surpluses was an intrinsic part of the seasonal round.” Such reserves were often repeatedly tapped over periods of weeks or months, many over multiple seasons, and some for a full year or more. Foods were often already maggot infested before they were placed in caches (i.e., in summer and autumn), and, by the time that the contents were lastly exhausted (commonly in winter and/or spring), they were almost invariably in an advanced state of putrefaction and filled with both living and dead maggots...

I think this is absolutely fascinating, so I've excerpted way too much, but I encourage interested readers to go to the primary source for more data and discussion.  The general public will focus way too much on the "ick" factor of eating maggots, but there are serious matters to consider here re components of a healthy diet, limitations of protein intake, and the consumption of fat.  In particular, this report gives me new insight into the well-known use of "buffalo jumps" to slaughter entire herds of large animals, such as at the Itasca (Minnesota) Bison Kill site and the more famous Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump in Canada.  I had always viewed such hunting techniques as extravagantly wasteful, but now I understand that humans could return to the kill site months later to harvest meat, fat, and maggot.

You learn something every day.

Finally a documented case of voter fraud

A woman who cast her dead mother's mail-in ballot for President Donald Trump has been ordered to read a book and write an essay on voting's importance to democracy and the consequences of election fraud.

Danielle Christine Miller, 51, of Nashwauk, avoids jail time despite facing three felony charges following the 2024 presidential election. She also was ordered to serve as many as three years on supervised probation and pay an $885 fine.

Miller filled out her [deceased] mother's absentee ballot and signed her mother's name on the signature envelope. She also signed her mother's name as the witness on her own ballot...

As part of a plea agreement, Miller is required to read "Thank You for Voting: The Maddening, Enlightening, Inspiring Truth About Voting in America" by Erin Geiger Smith and write a 10-page paper "regarding the importance in voting in a democracy and how election fraud can undermine the voting process."

“I think the sentence that was imposed here is very much designed to help her better understand the importance of those things and make sure that she doesn't — and quite frankly other people don't — take the same type of actions in the future,” Itasca County Attorney Jake Fauchald said. 

I'm sure people around the country are terrified that if they commit overt voter fraud they may be required to read a book and write a paper about it.  That should solve the problem.

Tardigrade egg

Because I like to end my blogging day with an interesting image.   Colorized scanning EM.  Here's another one:

At the via I found this comment:  "Tardigrades are born with the exact same number of cells as they have in adulthood. Their cells don't multiply during growth, they each just ... get bigger, as cells."

And finally this scan of a 50-hour old tardigrade embryo:

"One of nearly 1,000 species of hardy tardigrades, the Hypsibius dijardini embryo pictured above may have been the product of a sexless act of reproduction, its mother squirting her genetic material directly into eggs without bothering with any of the handful of males of her species for fertilization, according to the Encyclopedia of Life. That reproductive ability (called parthenogenesis), a genetic heritage largely unchanged through the generations, was her birthright and one she would likely have passed down to her children."

And BTW, there are tardigrades on the moon now.

Reposted from 2021 to add this video of tardigrades being born:

Via Neatorama, where there is a brief but informative text describing the process.

Today I learned something about arrowheads

The embedded photo was posted in the Arrowheads subreddit with the question "why so small?"

The short answer is "because it is a true arrowhead."  Here are a couple comments from a good discussion thread:

"That’s a true arrowhead. Most of the technology used was atlatl and the atlatl points are very large compared to arrowheads. Once the bow was invented, they could hunt game from further away and with more penetrating power using smaller points. These little points can still kill a deer. An atlatl dart point is like a .45, versus an arrowhead which is more like the stopping power of a 9mm."

"In archaeology we call them PPK'S (Projectile Points/Knives) because bow and arrows didn't appear in the Americas until around 600 years ago. The larger stuff that people call "arrowheads" are actually spear or lance points, atlatl points, or knives. You would be surprised by how many arrowhead shaped items are actually just knife blades."

"General rule about artifacts, Oldest hunting points were the Spear and Knife designed for Mega-Fauna in Paleo Era requiring LARGE ROBUST POINTS. Archaic are large to medium sized designed for new technology of the Atlatl and the smaller available game, deer elk, bear, beaver, antelope, Pronghorn Sheep, etc. The "bird points" are mostly modern Woodland Era and made more effective due to the near extinction of the main food source for the lower 48, the American Bison, Mule Deer, Elk and White Tails. Prairie Chickens, Grouse, Ducks, Geese, Rabbits, etc became the alternative out of pure necessity. Feed an entire village with Bison VS Small game, what could go wrong."

Student handcuffed for carrying a bag of Doritos

"Baltimore cops swarmed and handcuffed a high school student after an artificial intelligence tool mistook his bag of Doritos for a weapon.

Taki Allen, 16, was hanging out with his friends after football practice at Kenwood High School Monday night when all of a sudden, armed officers approached him.

"It was like eight cop cars that came pulling up for us. At first, I didn't know where they were going until they started walking toward me with guns, talking about, 'Get on the ground,' and I was like, 'What?'" Allen told local outlet WBAL-TV.

The student described the moment he was handcuffed by police: "They made me get on my knees, put my hands behind my back, and cuffed me. Then, they searched me and they figured out I had nothing.”

Allen said police then found the bag of Doritos he had been eating shortly before."

The story continues at The Independent.  How difficult is it to be a high school student nowadays?  This is a generation that has gone through mandatory shooter response drills since their childhood.  Now AI is deciding whether they are suspected of being a criminal, and the responders come with guns drawn.  FWIW any childhood stress in my era from nuclear war drills pales in comparison.

"Mad Hatterpillar"

Mad Hatterpillar. Winner, Behavior: Invertebrates. Georgina Steytler showcases the strange headgear of a gum-leaf skeletonizer caterpillar. This caterpillar’s unusual headgear is made up of old head capsules, each retained with every molt. The resulting tower is believed to help deflect attacks by predators. Location: Torndirrup National Park, Western Australia, Australia.

This was my favorite among the photos from the Wildlife Photographer of the Year entries posted at The Atlantic.

"The Night Manager"

I first saw this series in 2016 and rated it 4+ (i.e., excellent and worth re-watching).  Fortunately after 9 years I had forgotten enough details to allow me to enjoy the second viewing all over again.  Still superb, with stellar performances by the cast in a storyline crafted by John le Carré.  I found the six-episode two-disc DVD in our library so as not to have to endure the ads while streaming via Amazon Prime.

Polio was the "autumn ghost"

So named because of its seasonality, poliomyelitis was the cause of worldwide epidemics in the 1950s.  This new book presents a detailed look at the 1952 epidemic (in which I was an unwilling participant) with a focus on its effects in Denmark.

"... until quite recently in medical history, there was no intensive care.  Seventy years ago anyone who struggled to breathe, whose heart gave out, or whose kidneys shut down would be kept comfortable and left to die.  There were no ventilators, no monitors keeping track of vital signs minute to minute, no expertise of nurses and physicians to keep critically ill patients alive, and no dedicated units in hospitals for the care of such patients... This is the story of how we got from 1952 to now."

The story in Denmark begins at Blegdam ["Blei-dahm"] Hospital in Copenhagen, created in the 1860s as a "fever hospital" for quarantine purposes in a busy port city.  Cases of cholera and various febrile illnesses arriving by ship would be sequestered here for isolation until resolution or death.  Polio patients came here for "care," but not for "treatment" - which was nonexistent.  

By 1952, some iron lungs were in use, especially in the United States, but those devices were immense, expensive, and difficult to use.  In response to a massive epidemic which was killing their children, the Danes discovered the utility of "bagging" via an endotracheal tube.  But no automated ventilators existed, so medical students were recruited to bag patients continuously, 24/7.  Chapter 13 "Student Ventilators" details the development and implementation of this policy.

Nursing care in that era "was rooted in the tradition of a life given over to the work - long shifts, residence at the hospital for life, and no marriage."  That also had to change.  Analysis of blood gases and arterial pH - never before attempted (or considered) - was also invented, as was the concept of an "intensive care unit," (a term first used in 1958).

This book will not be of interest to everyone.  It will have special meaning to current polio survivors, and should be a must-read for respiratory therapy students who want to learn about the invention of their profession and its tools.

Reposted from 2023 because today is World Polio Day (and because some U.S. states are using medieval thought processes to roll back polio immunization requirements).  If any readers of TYWKIWDBI have a post-polio syndrome (as I do), please check out the information at Post-Polio Health.